The matter is made up of very small particles called molecules. Molecules are made up of a
number of atoms of either the same or different elements which are bonded
together.
The Greek philosopher called Leucippus and his pupils Democritus
(460 – 310 BC) are believed to be the founders of the atomic theory of
matter. They speculated that all matter is made up of identical, indivisible
particles called atoms separated by
empty space.
The existence of molecules suggested by Leucippus and
Democritus has been shown by experimental results produced by the English
chemist John Dalton in 1808 whose theory proposed that matter was composed of
tiny indivisible particles that he then called “ultimate” particles, now known as atoms. His theory
further states that every pure substance is made up of a single type of atoms
or a combination of different atoms called molecules.
·
In 1600’s Boyle tried to explain the observed
properties of gases in terms of molecules, their smallest particles (this will
be detailed in the gas laws).
·
Daniel Bernoulli (1700 – 1782) was the first to explain the law which Boyle
discovered. He also related temperature and molecular motion directly,
calculated the pressure of a gas from collisions of the molecules with the
walls of the containing vessel and inferred that when the temperature
increases, the velocity of the molecules increases also.
·
The Kinetic Molecular Theory states that “the particles that the matter is made up
with are always moving and they often bump into each other”. This random motion is present in varying
amount in solids, liquids and gases. The assumptions of kinetic theory of
matter can be summarised in the following points:
·
All
matter is made up of particles called molecules. In normal circumstances it
exists in three states.
·
All
the molecules of a given substance are alike in all respects.
·
The
molecules are separated from one another by the intermolecular space which is
more than the diameter of the molecule itself.
·
The
molecules attract each other with a force called inter-molecular force, which
is strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
·
Molecules
are in constant motion.
·
The
temperature of a substance is proportional to the average kinetic energy of all
the molecules of the substance.
5.1. States of Matter
Matter exists in the three states of solids, liquids
and gas. The physical difference between these three states lies in the
arrangement and behaviour of their molecules.
These differences can be explained in terms of the Kinetic Theory Model which states
that:
·
Matter
is made up of very small particles called molecules
·
These
molecules are in constant motion
·
The
degree of movement which is the measure of kinetic energy depends upon the
temperature.
The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules
move and therefore the higher the kinetic energy.
Notice that the heat energy of a substance is the total kinetic energy of all the
molecules or atoms of that substance.
SOLIDS
In the solid state the molecules are closely packed
together and are not free to move about randomly; they vibrate about their
fixed position (known as the mean position)
Arrangement of molecules in solid state
The ability of a solid to maintain its definite shape
and fixed volume is the result of the strong intermolecular forces of
attraction between the molecules. These are known as cohesive forces.
Solids are classified into two groups: crystalline and non-crystalline (amorphous)
The difference between the two groups is the result of
the way in which the molecules are arranged. This molecular arrangement is
called the lattice structure of the
molecules
Crystalline solids
These are solids whose lattice structure has a
definite regular pattern. E.g. sodium
chloride (rock salt)
Crystalline solid |
Amorphous solids
The lattice structure of an amorphous solid is an
irregular, disordered pattern. E.g.: charcoal
and sulphur.
Molecules are arranged differently in different solids
and have varying magnitudes of intermolecular forces of attraction. These
factors are responsible for some of the mechanical properties of solids
(especially metals)
Elasticity: It is the ability of a material to return to its
original state or its original shape after it has been stretched or compressed
by an external force.
Plasticity: It is the property of a material by which some
permanent deformation remains even after the force producing it has been
removed.
Ductility: it is the property of a material which governs
whether it can be stretched and drawn into wires of small cross-section where
there will be considerable deformation without fracture.
Brittleness: This is the
property of a material which is fragile and breaks suddenly when a force is
applied to it.
Malleability: It is the
property which allows a material to be rolled into thin sheets without
breaking. E.g. Iron, copper and aluminium can be rolled into thin sheets
Change of solid state:
When a solid is heated, the vibrations of molecules
and their kinetic energy increase. If the temperature goes to a certain level,
the intermolecular forces are broken apart and molecules are released from each
other. This results in the material changing its state from a solid to a
liquid, the process known as melting or fusion. The opposite phenomenon is called solidification or freezing
– change of liquid into solid.
LIQUIDS
Molecules in a liquid are more widely spaced than in a
solid, are also vibrating to and fro about their mean position. Their
intermolecular force is weak and the molecules movement is free. This enables
them to take the shape of the containing vessel.
Arrangement of molecules in a liquid |
Molecules further apart (gentle motion) |
Under the same temperature conditions, the intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules are different in liquids and this is responsible for the variance in physical properties.
a. Surface tension:
It is the property whereby the molecules on the
surface of the liquid do not experience the same intermolecular forces as those
within the liquid.
The effect of
surface tension
Surface tension tends to reduce the surface area of a
liquid. The degree of reduction in the surface area is determined by the
surface tension which in turn, depends on the intermolecular forces present. An
example of two liquids with different surface tensions is water and mercury:
A droplet of water will tend to spread out, whereas a
drop of mercury will be a spherical ball. This is because there is greater
surface tension in a mercury droplet than there is in a drop of water.
Shapes of the droplets of two materials due to surface tension |
Another example of the effect of surface tension is
the perfectly spherical shape of soap bubbles. Soap solution, detergents and
alcohol lower the surface tension of most liquids.
b. Viscosity
This is a property of certain fluids which causes
them to offer resistance to the flow of other substances (either solids or
liquids) through them.
COHESION AND ADHESION
The particles making substances are held together by
intermolecular forces of attraction which are grouped in two major categories
according to their action:
1.
Cohesive forces (cohesion)
It is the intermolecular forces of attraction acting
between molecules of the same substance. If these forces are strong, then the
surface tension is strong and the surface area of the liquid is reduces.
·
When the liquid with very strong cohesive forces are
put in a container they form a convexmeniscus.
·
When the liquids with weak cohesive forces are put
into a container, they form a concave
meniscus
2.
Adhesive forces (adhesion)
This is the intermolecular forces of attraction acting
between molecules of different substances. E.g.: The cohesive forces between
the mercury molecules are stronger than the adhesive forces between mercury and
glass molecules and subsequently the mercury meniscus in glass container is convex.
This is opposite for water and the meniscus are concave. (It is even the
reason why water wets glass whilst mercury does not.)
The two types of meniscus |
Another example of the effect of cohesion and adhesion is
the rise of liquids in very narrow capillary tubes.
Change of liquid state:
When a liquid is heated at high temperature, the
particles move faster, intermolecular forces of attraction decrease and
intermolecular spaces reduce. This results in the liquid changing the state and
turns into gas. This process in known as ‘evaporation’. Evaporation on the
surface of a liquid occurs at any temperature but it is very slow. However,
when a liquid is boiling, this change takes place everywhere in the liquid and
is very fast. The process opposite to evaporation is called condensation
– change of gas into liquid.
GASES
In the gaseous state, molecules are even further apart
than in water. This implies that they have more freedom to move among
themselves. In gaseous state the molecules move haphazardly and at high speed
and they are constantly colliding with each other and the walls of the
container. These collisions are perfectly elastic,
which means that the total kinetic energy of the particles before collision is
equal to their total kinetic energy after collision.
Arrangement of the molecules of a gas |
(Vigorous motion) |
Remark: The spaces between the molecules of a gas are relatively large, so that much of the volume occupied by a gas is actually empty space. As a result, the intermolecular forces are almost negligible and the molecules are independent to each other. The increased speeds and the greater spacing between the molecules allow the gas to both fill any volume and also to be compressed (as opposed to expansion).
Change of gaseous state:
When a gas is cooled down, the
motion of its particles slows down and the intermolecular spaces reduce. This
results in the gas changing into liquid, the process known as condensation
or liquefaction. Some substances such as carbon change directly
from gas to solid and vice versa. This process, in both cases is called sublimation
(e.g.: case of carbon dioxide or dry ice and naphthalene).
The following table summarises properties of gases,
liquids, and solids and identifies the microscopic behaviour responsible for
each property.
Comparative Characteristics
of Gases, Liquids and Solids and their Molecular Explanation. |
||
Gas |
Liquid |
Solid |
Assumes the shape and volume
of its container: particles can move past
one another |
Assumes the shape
of the part of the container which it occupies: particles can
move/slide past one another |
Retains a fixed
volume and shape: rigid - particles locked into place |
Compressible: lots of free space between particles |
Not easily
compressible: little free space between particles |
Not easily
compressible: little free space
between particles |
Flows easily: particles can move past one another |
Flows easily: particles can
move/slide past one another |
Does not flow
easily: rigid - particles cannot move/slide past one another |
Negligible intermolecular
forces of attraction between particles. |
Weak intermolecular forces of attraction between
particles. |
Strong intermolecular forces
of attraction between particles. |
Table 1.1: Comparison of solid, liquid and gaseous
state in terms of their particles’ behaviour
The change of state can be summarised in the following
diagram:
Illustration of the change of the state of matter |
No comments:
Post a Comment