INTRODUCTION
In agrarian societies hard work by individuals was the key to success. But in industrial societies individuals gain success through efforts within the structure of companies. Today, most people spend the great part of their life in pursuit of a career in industries and organisations. Much of that period of their lives is spent much in ignorance of what their abilities are and which career could best suit those abilities. Primarily mismatch of abilities with career is a major cause of dissatisfaction in both career and life.
If work began, since the era of scientific management, to be classified and broken down to duties, tasks, working conditions, hazards and responsibilities and roles assigned on the basis of abilities, knowledge and skills, the need for insight into ones abilities, strengths and weaknesses needed for career success is crucial. There are existing theories that can give insight into the fit between man and job.
MEANING OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT
A career is ones particular area of work within a series of jobs. The work usually involves more responsibility as time passes. One can pursue a teaching/academic career, career in medicine or politics. What one does over a period of time becomes ones’ career.
Development is a dynamic construct implying gradual growth, or increase or advancement. A career according to Fajana (2002) is the pattern or sequence of work roles of an individual. A career is not simply moving up a career ladder within ones organisation. It is a sequence of work related experiences that people participate in over the life span of their working lives. A person’s career might include moving up the corporate ladder (vertically up) or moving across the organization (i.e. laterally) or may involve changing jobs or occupation.
Career development is situated within organizational environment, where it involves levels of employees who are individually responsible for growth or development of their career. Organizations do however formulate career development policies which determine how talents are sourced, utilized, upgraded and discarded. Effective career development has been said to improve employee satisfaction and self-esteem, minimizes stress, and strengthens the employees’ psychological and physical health. Effective career development is also of benefit to the organization as well as the individual employee.
MEANING OF SELF-IDENTITY
The self is both a simple and complex concept. It is more than a mental construct located in your head - It is you, a social being with ability to engage in symbolic communication and self awareness. Often we ask the question who am I? Who am I relative to others? What is my purpose in life? Aristotle, a Greek Philosopher once said that “the unexamined life is not worth living” This applied in the content of self could have read that the unexamined self is not worth being a self!
The question, who am I, is definitely that of a desire to find or fix an identity. A quest to anchor ones ’ personality or self upon some definite ideas of success/ failure, meaningfulness / non-meaningfulness, or simply to see oneself in retrospect.
Exercise l: Pick a sheet of paper, on the left column, number 1 to 20 and beginning each sentence with the statement “I am”, make a list of up to twenty different responses to the question “who am I? ”
Easy to do? Perhaps not so! Psychologists have used this type of procedure to understand how we develop our sense of identity. Three issues are important in the earlier definition of self.
1. That the self is a social being. The self do not develop in isolation but relative to certain relevant others, That is, the self evolves within a social context. The social context includes father, mother, and siblings as member of the nuclear family. Also uncles, cousins, nieces, nephews and/ immediate neighbours often form the nucleus of our early life interactions and do rob off on our sense of self. The nature and kind of interaction produces unique attributes of individualism or communalism(collectivism) depending on how broad or narrow the nexus of interaction is. The African child does often evolve into a communal being because of the extended family system, while the American child is individualistic.
2. Self as a symbol using agent. This implies the self as a “meaning seeking” agent/meaningful object. He categorises his enveloping environment of living and non-living entities by assigning symbols that assists in understanding, planning and coordinating his activities. Symbol usage also assists in regulating our behaviour as well as in anticipating the actions of others. The development and use of language has also assist in assigning meaning and value to the environment in which he lives.
3. Self-awareness. The self exist relative to others. Self-awareness provides knowledge about own behaviour, and encourages the use of insight from inner experiences to anticipate how rivals might behave in the future - in war or social engagements - thus giving advantage in the activities.
On the whole, the self is not a ‘thing’ distinct or separate from the person. We do not possess a self or have a self; rather we become a self through maturation and socialization.
What is assessment? It means to examines, form an opinion or make judgment about after careful consideration. Another word for assessment is evaluation. Self-assessment therefore is careful examination of self, with respect to certain salient expectations (of success or failure) or values, or beliefs especially those held by one with respect to either common opinions of significant others.
CAREER ANCHORS
There are reasons behind choice of career by individuals. An individual’s career choice according to Schein (1978) is informed by:
1. Motivation.
2. Self-perceived talents and abilities.
3. Self-perceived motive and needs.
4. Self-perceived attitudes and values.
5. Technical/functional competence.
10. Need for power, influence and control.
CAREER CYCLE
There are a number of propositions by scholars who had devoted time to the study of career stages across organizations. Two of such studies are briefly reviewed below. Schein had proposed nine stages, while Greenhans and Callaman proposed a five stage cycle.
Schein’s nine stages of career development cycle.
Age Career stage
Growth, fantasy, exploration
16-25 Entry into the world of work
17- 30 Full membership in early career
25plus Full membership in mid career
Mid career crises
40plus Late career
40plus Decline and disengagement
Retirement
Greenhans and Callaman five stage cycle.
| Stage | Age | Characteristics |
| 1 | up to 25 | occupational choice; preparations for worth |
| 2. | 18 to 25 | organisational entry. |
| 3. | 25 to 40 | early career establishment and achievement |
| 4. | 40 to 55 | Mid career\ |
| 5. | 50 & above | Late career. |
It could be seen from the above that one’s career spans, giving the definition of the labour force in Nigeria as consisting of people from between ages15 - 65, more than a third of the lifespan. Each of the stages poses unique challenges to both employees and employers of labour.
Pre entry stage is characterized with schooling/training, fantasy about certain ‘noble’ careers or successful models and several activities not excluding self and others assessment, job search and the confusion of the first few days at work. The induction training in all good intent is meant to cater for the need of new recruits who needed to be situated within the context of a new organizational culture, climate and work ethics. The general and specific rule of work, often captured in the company’s employees’ handbook, is made available to serve as guide.
Career Plans
Organization’s human resource plan for career growth and development may be for long (focus on future) or short term plans (focus is on the immediate).
i. Short term plans. In short term plans no deliberate effort is made to process skills through the organizations growth machineries. High performers are not identified and approved for future responsibilities. The prevailing assumptions will be that high performers will ultimately prove themselves and assume greater future responsibilities, otherwise the organisation will recruit from outside. Where deliberate effort is not made to develop and harness internal labour market, workers are difficult to put to action and such organisation will experience higher rate of workers’ turnover.
ii. Long term career plans. A highly structured career management plans are put in place to train, motivate and promote high performers to assume greater responsibilities. Performance is periodically assessed, rewarded and training is given to meet future needs.
Another feature of long term plan is the broadening as well as deepening experience of job holders through exposure to relevant technology. Long term plans occur more in large organisation with individual structure, whereas short term plans is more common in small and rapidly growing organisations.
SELF-ASSESSMENT AND CAREER PLANNING
The self with respect to relevant social environment began as soon as one’s sense of self is evolving. In the traditional society, assessment does often go beyond the individual person. Parents concerned about the present and future outcomes had over the years used different means to assess the future of their children. Such practices as divination, palmistry, star gazing or horoscope were attempts used in the past and still used today, by parents and individuals to ascertain the future. These attempts lack scientific base and may lead into erroneousjudgment of future prospects. Certain individuals unfortunately base decision such as choice of career or profession on such ideas and traditional practices.
Self-assessment becomes realistic and with a chance to make valid prediction if based on objective facts about human abilities, interests, competencies and experiences. The basis for career choice and planning is understanding of natural abilities upon which adequate cultivation and training can be built for successful work experiences. Some of such bases are: physiological, cognitive, emotional, behavioural, socio/ economic, past history, personality and needs.
Physiological. We are basically a biological being and physiological factors are largely inherited except where accidentally caused. The first contact with a person often lead to rough and rapid assessment of his physiological characteristics; such as height, physique, beauty / handsome or ugliness etc.
Phrenology (assessment of a person’s behaviour on the basis of shape of the skull or facial features) was once popular as a result of belief that physical features are good indication of certain specific abilities. In abilities requiring raw brawn (e.g. wrestling and boxing) for instance, a person’s physiology is indicative. Certain professions as modelling and basket ball are respectively predicted for instance on the basis of good physique and height.
Cognitive.Perhaps a more important ability in career choice is the cognitive or intellectual ability. Cognitive abilities are many and varied. Traditionally, the intelligent quotient (IQ) measure has been presented as a unified measure of intellectual capacity. In reality, there are several intellectual functions some of which are;
i. Verbal ability. This refers to ability to comprehend and use words.
ii. Numerical ability. That is ability to use and manipulate numbers for mathematical and statistical ends. The population of students picking their vocation on the basis of dislikes or otherwise for mathematics attest to disparity in this ability. The skill is useful in all science, business and a wide range of occupations.
iii. Spatial. Meaning ability to relate with dimensions of space and relativity of space and time. People in engineering, Geology, Geography, need this ability to function as pilot, surveyor, cartographer and so forth.
iv. Psychomotor. Movement and use of fingers and other extremities are controlled and coordinated in the brain. Women for instance, have been shown to be more dexterous in their use of fingers, while men use their legs better. This may explain the preponderance of female typists and computer operators.
v. Abstract reasoning. Meaning ability for logic deductive reasoning. It is an important ability for would be scientists, researchers and people dealing with abstract component of experience.
vi. Creativity. Creativity refers to ability to derive novel solution to problem by bringing remote elements of experience together to produce new objects, new ideas or build new movement or models. It is useful ability in Art, Engineer, Science and in all field of endeavour where there is a need to break new grounds in human and material experience. This ability is limited in most population, and belongs more or less to the realm of geniuses like Isaac Newton, Wole Soyinka and Engineer Awojobi. They exhibit what Debono called lateral thinking.
vii. Problem solving. It is an ability required where complex problems are involved. Problem solvers are unique in their mode of thinking, use of imagination, and ability to go beyond normal mode of thinking. Problem solving ability also leads to novel and creative solutions and as such has been though a different concept, studied along with creativity. The ability is also not so common or not so widely developed among most society man.
Emotional. While cognitive abilities describe rational factors of human behaviour, emotional factors are the basis of some irrational factors in man and also the basis of various motivational tendencies. Certain noted emotions are fear, frustration hate, anger, hate on the negative side, and love, joy, satisfaction and excitement on the positive side. Emotions are also described as temperament and are believed to have influence on both covert and overt behaviour as well as on occupational choices and life outcomes.
For instance, Emotional Intelligence (EI) which refers to assortment of non-cognitive skills, capacities and competencies has been shown to influence a person’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures. It’s composed of five dimensions;
Self awareness - ability to be aware of what you are feeling
Self management -ability to manage one’s own emotions and impulses
Self-motivation -ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures
Empathy - ability to sense how others are feeling Social-skill - ability to handle the emotions of others.
Behavioural basis. One’s behaviour (covert) and behavioural tendencies (covert) can serve as relevant and informed basis for self assessment. In most instances people are judged on the basis of what they do or what they refrain from doing. Ones behaviour at present is an insight into what one might do at a later. If certain behaviour is persistent in a child e.g. reading, singing, playing football, doodling, it may be an indication of his area of potential or interest in later life. A number of people had made it through life by developing their age long interest or relapsing into former pre-occupation after an extensive waste of time in other vocations.
Socio-Economic Basis. For certain skills or aptitudes to be developed, ones social and economic (individual, familiar or national) had to be assessed. Many who would have been a doctor may come from a background that is rich in poverty and as such unable to access found for the training. Most society in the developed world has put in place social and economic mediatory measures that will assist indigent but talented individuals to pursue their dreams. Nigeria is yet to come of age in this aspect, the social and economic footholds for training and educational had been further weakened by reckless and unrelenting reforms that have led to a vastly privatised nursery, primary, secondary and tertiary education to the advantage of indigent talents and potentialities.
Past History. Making self-assessment, with respect to past history, depend on the stage of life of the assessor; preschool, school age, school leaver or professional. For children, parents do often judge choice of career for their children mainly in the light of their own career success or failure. While most uneducated parents have little or nothing to say in their children choice of career, often they prefer popular professions like Law, Medicine, and Engineering. Educated parents may wish to use their children choice of career as wish fulfilment tool to satisfy their area of career failure or to betroth to them fortunes from their career success e.g. a legal practice, their company, assets and sometimes liabilities.
Personality Basis. Certain personality characteristics tend to relate to job success. People belong to several personality categorizations such as; Extroverts (Externally projected and socially gregarious individuals) and Introverts (internally directed, reticent, and easy going). Also people can make assessment of career orientation on the basis of their dominant needs.
Milande and Costa (1999) using the factor analytic approach proposed four higher order factors each including several of Cattell’s factors. The ‘big five’ factors have been well researched and found to be predictive of life outcomes such as career success. The big five’ factor is presented using the acronym OCEAN for open conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neurotism.
The Big Five Personality Factors
| THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY FACTORS AND THEIR LOWER-ORDER TRAITS | |
| Big Five Factors | Lower-Order Traits |
| Openness Conscienscious | Artistically sensitive vs. Artistically insensitive Intellectual vs. unreflective, narrow Polished, refined vs. crude, boorish Imaginative vs. simple, direct Fussy, tidy vs. careless Responsible vs. undependable Scrupulous vs. unscrupulous Persevering vs. quitting, fickle |
| Extraversion | Talkative vs. silent Frank, open vs. secretive Adventurous vs. cautious Sociable vs. recluse |
| Agreeableness | Good natured vs. irritable Not jealous vs. jealous Mild, gentle vs. headstrong Cooperative vs. negativistic |
| Neurotism | Poised vs. nervous, tense Calm vs. anxious Composed vs. excitable |
Emotionally stable vs. moody, unstable
Adapted from Passer and Smith, (2001)
The decisive influences of personality factors cannot be overemphasized. For instance, extraverts with propensity to be highly sociable are likely to buy with an objective to meet up with people’s expectation rather than self. Loud colours will be likely preferred, as much as he / she will eat out of the home environment regularly and in company of others. The introvert on the other hand will prefer mild colours, show little concern for giving socially approved impressions of him/her and his/her general buying behaviour will reflect this orientation.
Needs. Our needs in life dominates our emotions, behaviour, and motives. Several needs, ranging from family, societal, and personal needs can form the basis of consideration for career choice. Most educated Africans in 1960s became journalists or politicians because of societal need for emancipation from colonialism. Many communities today still decide the career choice of their indigenes on the basis of areas of political, social or economic imperatives.
The Niger Deltans will want their people to acquire skills that are suitable in the oil companies. Government in Nigeria had in the past made policies that favour career choices in science and engineering. Individuals may also see their education and career choice as a means to an end such as eradication of poverty, defending family legalizes or as result of a need to pursue knowledge and enlightenment.
CONCLUSION
Career begins with understanding of one’s identity within the context of natural abilities, needs and societal perception. Self-assessment is signposted in physiological, cognitive, personality and other attributes which makes career plans feasible and predictable.
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