Albert Bandura is noted as one of the exponents of theory of social learning and observational learning. Social learning theory explains human behaviour from the point of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural and environmental influences.
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
As stated above, observational learning is a type of learning which occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others who are called models, (Weiten, 2004). There are three basic concepts at the centre of social cognitive learning theory. These include the fact that
· People can learn through observation,
· Mental states are important to learning (intrinsic reinforcement) and that
· Learning does not necessarily lead to behaviour change.
Bandura departed from behaviourists ideas that learning leads to a change in behaviour. This theory holds that people can observe new behaviours without change in behaviour or imitate the behaviour observed.
Observational learning emphasises the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours of others. Weiten (2004) defined a model as a person whose behaviour is observed by another.
Schunk (2009) presents that there are three basic models in observational learning these include a live model (models that are present or appear in person), models that are not human beings for example televised talking animals (on television these would be Garfield, Penguins of Madagascar, Lion King and Tom and Jerry) and other cartoon characters. The last model is the symbolic or fictional model which encompasses computers, videotape, DVD or in print /that is books and magazines.
Bandura (1986) maintains that people's characteristic patterns of behaviour are shaped by the models they are exposed to. Some models are more influential than others. For example, people are more likely to imitate people they like and respect or better put, significant others.
As discussed by Santrock (2006) Bandura demonstrated observational learning through the Bobo doll experiment. In the experiment, an equal number of children were randomly picked to watch one of three movies which showed a person beat up an adult size plastic toy called Bobo doll. In the first group, children saw the model being rewarded for the aggressive behaviour as such when later on the children were given to play with the Bobo doll themselves, they too tended to be more aggressive. The second group of children watched the model being punished for aggressive behaviour and hence they themselves showed less aggression towards the doll. The last group of children watched a film where there were no consequences for the aggressor's behaviour.
In this experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate the behaviours that they observe in other people. It can further be stated about the social cognitive learning theory that observing a model does not guarantee learning or later ability to perform the behaviour. Rather, models provide information about probable consequences of action and motivate observers to act accordingly. When the models observed are rewarded or punished for their behaviour, we the observers ensure that we modify our behaviour based on what the consequences are.
In addition, the social cognitive learning theory stresses the point that social factors, individual internal cognitive processes and obvert behaviour cannot be separated as they are crucial at achieving meaningful learning. It should be noted here that it is this interaction between environmental factors and personal factors which is referred to as reciprocal determinism.
To explain reciprocal determinism, the following examples will be used:
(a) Environment influences an individual: a given school introduces culture (traditional dancing and singing) as an extra curriculum activity and students as such join groups of their choice.
(b) Behaviour influences the environment: the cultural groups become big and successful such that students are even invited to perform at national level. This achievement in behaviour motivates the school to expand the programme and include traditional games such as solo
(c) Personal factors influence behaviour: many students join the cultural groups and view them as future careers. The example above shows the inter play of environmental factors, obvert behaviour and personal factors.
For social learning theory to take place, there are four factors which must be present. These are observers (learners), teacher (model), learners’ attention and proximity or nearness. The process of learning is influenced by the extent of identifications and imitations by the learners to the other three factors.
In most cases, an individual will like to emulate a model who is perceived to be competent, powerful, and attractive, as well as someone whose behaviour is relevant to the observer. This means that we learn by observing the behaviour of others.
In social learning theory, reinforcement is not a prerequisite for a learning to occur, but this increases the chance that what has been learnt will definitely be performed. This theory is therefore rested on the fact that an action or behaviour can be performed if the model is pleasantly rewarded. It is also believed that there is probability that an observer might drop a behaviour if he found out that the model has received a negative reinforcement for practicing such a behaviour.
CRITICAL STAGES OR BASIC PROCESSES IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
It is stated that in observational learning as in any other type of learning, there are phases or stages that should be followed. If the stages are not seriously adhered to, the, desired results may not be attained. Among the stages listed are: attention, retention reproduction and motivation. The first two stages highlight the importance of cognition in this type of learning.
(i) Attention is the first stage of observational learning. This phase requires that learners focus all their energies on the model so as not to miss out any detail on what the model is saying or doing. It is also believed that learners will pay more attention to models who are attractive and are of high status or those who are in the circle of significant others.
(ii) Retention stage: This is the second stage, which involves coding of information with a view to falling back on it or retrieving it in future. This is so because an individual may not have occasion to use the observed response for weeks, months or even years. Therefore, an individual must store a mental representation observed in the memory. The learner's rate of retention in the phase of retention can be aided by the use of simple descriptions or vivid images of the teacher or model. Sequence markers can also be used to facilitate retention.
(iii) The reproduction stage is the stage where learners will strive to make an attempt and remember the observed behaviour. This the phase where the learners may have to make several attempts until the targeted behaviour has been learnt accurately. Enacting a modelled response depends on an individual's ability to reproduce the response by converting the stored mental images into obvert behaviour. This phase can be termed as the trial-adjustment and readjustment stage. It should be mentioned here that teachers are required to give prompt feedbacks to enable the learners to make necessary adjustments.
(iv) Motivation is the last stage of observational learning process. As stated earlier on, observational learning involves the idea of seeing what the model is doing and evaluating the consequences of the modelled action. This actually means the learner has to make the final decision on whether or not to perform the modelled behaviour. The decisions of which will be determined by the consequences observed. Thus, learners are more likely to perform the modelled behaviour if the consequences are positive. On the other hand, an individual is unlikely to reproduce an observed response unless he/she is motivated to do so. Therefore, learning does not always lead to change of behaviour.
Furthermore, reinforcement is very important in the process of learning. According to the social learning theory, performance or non-performance of modelled behaviour may also be attributed to the kind of reinforcement that the learner receives. Three types of reinforcement are distinguished by the social learning theory:
(1) Direct reinforcement: A learner who models behaviour and is praised or admired for the same will be said to have experience direct reinforcement.
(2) Vicarious reinforcement that includes vicarious positive reinforcement and vicarious punishment. Bandura (1977) defined vicarious reinforcement as a reinforcement that occurs when an individual imitates the behaviour of someone who has been reinforced for that behaviour. This can happen through watching, listening to or reading about other people. For example, a child can be reinforced to work hard in school after listening to someone who has excelled in education and living a decent life. Vicarious punishment is a decrease of a probability of behaviour due to having observed this behaviour leading to negative consequences. For example, an individual can stop abusing drugs after watching a person suffering from various health complications due to smoking or after watching someone (model)being imprisoned because of being found in possession and abusing drugs.
(3) The third type of reinforcement is self-reinforcement. In this type of reinforcement, the learner waits for no external approval or disapproval. The learner bases his decision to either exhibit behaviour o or not on the inner satisfaction. For example, an individual reward or punish him/herself for meeting or failing to meet own standards. It is this kind of reinforcement that Woolfolk (1995) recommends as most desired in learning because it with stands extinction and usually results in meaningful learning. Learners who are self-reinforced set their own goals. However, care should be taken to ensure that the goals set are realistic when this is not done; the result might lead to either, discouragement or disappointment.
The social learning theory highlights how a variety of personal factors govern behaviour. In recent years, Bandura has emphasised on how self-efficacycan influence behaviour. Self-efficacy refers to one's belief about one's ability to perform behaviours that should lead to expected out comes. Schunk ( 2009) broadens the view that self-efficacy is very important in learning because it is directly related to effort and task persistence. For example, learners whose self-efficacy is high are likely to exert effort in the midst of difficulty and still will show enthusiasm to perform a task when they have the required skills.
APPRECIATION OF THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
It is an observable fact that we acquire, maintain and modify behaviour that we see others perform. The theory helps us to draw the conclusion that human beings are not passive in learning. This implies that human beings are rational, organised and self-reflecting beings who are able to interpret the world around them. This can be seen in their ability to observe and evaluate consequences.
The social cognitive theory exposes the autonomy of human beings to choose which behaviours to imitate in spite of being exposed to various behaviours. The theory of operant conditioning boarders on the concept that people learn by doing. However, the social cognitive theory projects a much different view which is that behavioural consequences as opposed to cementing behaviours work as sources of information and motivation.
It is because of consequences that people are able to verify the accurateness or appropriateness of behaviour. It is only natural to emulate people whose actions have led to success. For example, we choose which behaviours to keep and when to use them.
Furthermore, the theory lays bare the interplay of personal factors, environmental factors and behaviour. These are very important factors in the process of learning.
3.1 Classroom Implications of Social Learning Theory
1. The teacher is a model for students in his/her classroom, and he/she has a profound effect on students’ attitudes, beliefs and behaviour (Crowl, Kaminsiky and Podell, 1997). In this case, the teacher should be a good model.
2. The teacher should always make sure that he/she does not condone any irrational behaviour from his/her students. Any offending student should be appropriately dealt with, so as to serve as a deterrent to other members of the classroom.
3. The teacher should not forget to give complimentary remarks such as “well done”, excellent”, “good boy/girl,” “keep it up”, as a way of encouraging other students to imitate a good behaviour.
4. Teacher/parents should discourage their students/children from watching violent films or keeping friends of doubtful characters.
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